Agency Theory Versus Stewardship Theory Accounting Essay

Agency Theory Versus Stewardship Theory Accounting Essay Jensen and Meckling (1976) defined an agency correlation as a contractual set-up under which the business owner or the principal engaged a manager or the agent to execute some service on his behalf and may usually entail some decision making exclusively by the agent. The agency theory revolves on the basic proposition about humans, which deals with principals and agents as self-oriented focusing on exploiting their personal advantage (Corbetta and Salvato, 2004; Chua, Steier and Chrisman, 2006). Shleifer and Vishny (1986) explain the agency context in which the financiers needed the agents specialization to obtain maximum returns from their funds, meanwhile the managers since they do not have enough capital on their own would utilize the finances of its principal. Agency theory described managers as opportunistic (Wasserman, 2006) by seizing its optimum advantage for his appointment and role as the mover in the firm for its own benefit, at the expense of the principal (Shulze, Lubatk in Dino, 2003). Both parties goal is to gain that personal advantage in every way possible with the least outlay and expenditure. These expenditures are defined as agency costs (Jensen and Meckling, 1976). This is the total of cash outflows made by the principal for its organization be it in budget proportions, auditing, or employee honorariums; the expenses incurred by the agent for income generating projects and the marginal loss due to the decline in the expected income of the principal as caused by the resulted deviation of motives between the agents resolution and the main goal of the principal to obtain maximum returns from its investments. Thus, high conflicting of interests between the principals and agents that resulted from information asymmetry is the main statement in an agency theory (Davis, Schoorman and Donaldson, 1997). Asymmetry of information between the two parties is displayed when the manager align his capabilities with the expected outcome, result and rationality of the princip al (not knowing his own abilities) leads to satisfying decision-making on the part of the principal while this is an example of adverse selection for the agent (Karra, Tracey and Phillips, 2006). More often than not, this leads to a number of non-satisfactory overall performances of the manager which will in due time lead to the destruction of the firm and the reputation of the agent (Jensen, 2004). As well as for the principals, their incapability of selecting candidates that acts appropriately in all circumstances are proofs of adverse selection. The outcome always entails an ambiguous job description on both parties. Nevertheless, there are still some factors that the agency theory fails to point out, other than motivational or self-gratitude. These maybe are the intrinsic inability or low ability, poor knowledge on business and misinformation of agents that resulted in their failure to deliver high performance for their principals (Davis, Schoorman and Donaldson, 1997). Moral hazard as described by Chrisman, Chua and Litz (2004) is another agency problem confronted by the corporate governance. Its another kind of opportunism which includes utilizing, seizing and assuming all extra benefits from a delegated authority to rule in behalf of the principal. Since it is difficult for the principal to monitor agents, this authority is undeniably has a chance of being abused or misused by the managers. This problems solution is to adapt a good monitoring system and internal self-governance by the principal which entails agency cost (Eisenhardt, 1989). As discussed by Berle and Means in 1932, a company does not behave based with the conventional model in which the agents must act in the best interest of the owners of the firm. Most likely as a consequence, the principal then would guarantee that the managers would act in their best interest. The idea of formulating a contract is relied upon by the agency theory to align the motives of both parties concerned. The goal is to balance the intention by allocating maximized values for shareholders and added incentives and benefits for the managers. Committee audits and performance evaluations by the board may act as effective authority tool for monitoring and scrutinizing potentially opportunistic agents (Mustakallio, Autio and Zahra, 2002). This internal governance system as a solution to ensure the compliance of the agents bounded by the contract will simultaneously be given to a non-executive sect who will be composed of auditors, supervisors and other structural arrangements. This non-executive part of the ownership structure serves as the middle man interconnecting the principal and the agent having a role in monitoring, thereby extending an enormous effect in the change or variation in control (Denis, 2001). In relation to corporate governance, legitimate actions against deceits and other modes of fraudulence may provide some fortification on the part of the principal. Economic analysis suggests that incorporating these solutions to the firm may considerably eliminate opportunism. But there are still factors that need to be considered in this special structure of the firm that is created for internal governance of which other forms of opportunism may arose in those entrusted with responsibility to check on the managers of the firm. The study made by Yermack in 1999 suggests that the board particularly its composition as an authority to monitor managers has an effect on the governance mechanism. The study on the effect of small board of directors in a company got the significant result that there is a positive correlation of this small size to greater market valuation of a company. Meanwhile, Hannifa and Hudaib (2006) stands with the result of Yermack showing results based on more than 300 companies listed in Malaysia which proposed that a large board is less efficient in auditing the performance of the managers compared to a smaller one. Moreover, this huge composition of the board is quite expensive for the companies to maintain in terms of honorariums, commissions and compensation. But in terms of profit and company growth, the large board may seem to be of importance because of the diversity in experiences, knowledge and accountability. Nevertheless, the study made by Guest in 2009, showed a strong result on the non-relation of the large board size to the firm performance however they also robustly imply that they dont suggest to restrict large boards to obtain a better firm performance. All these efforts executed by principals to avoid agency problems, minding the fact that there are still managers that wont deliver exactly what theyre expected to, entails agency costs as discussed. Often, the goal of the principal is to minimize agency costs and focus on profit even if not in growth. Here comes the conflict of organizing the principal-agent relationship (Shapiro, 2005) wherein the idea is exemplified but the measures are often inadequate, thus the alignment of the interests of the principal and manager is hardly ever absolute. A control-oriented firm is then considered necessary under agency theory which suggests that agents will not act to take full advantage of the returns to the principal if and only if systematic self-governance mechanisms are implemented in the firm to protect the shareholders interest (Jensen and Meckling, 1976). Stewardship theory In 1993, Block believes that firms implementing stewardship by front-running service instead of self-interest are those that are most effective in corporate governance. He believes that both the firm and individual needs will be greatly achieved by establishing trust-relationships and treating subordinates as partners. Preston (1998) added a definition of Stewardship Theory to exemplify humane duties owed to all partners that recognizes the importance of a systematic fit of corporate governance considering the elements of its environment. Hosmer in 1996 identifies the need to augment the economic and social responsibilities in governance by recognizing the moral and ethical issues inherent in the stewardship theory. The managers role in stewardship theory is to maximize the potential of the firm and to pursue long-term wealth acquisition with organizational and individual desires best accomplished by assessing collective ends (Hosmer, 1996). The goal is on assuming accountability and responsibility for the organizational community. The model of a manager should be as a steward whose behavior is ordered and organizational; whose collectivistic behavior is of higher reverence than individualistic, self-serving conduct (Albanese, et al 1997). They exemplify that man being intelligent makes rational, not irrational decisions, unlike agency proposers who dispute stewardship. Stewardship theory view employees as assets of the firm as the agency did but they differ in their treatment of the human natures motivation and ability of control. A true steward is driven by his need of self-actualization, growth and achievement without being opportunistic and self-interested in his performance (Mejia et al., 2001). Stewardship ideology proposes that corporate governance structures should exercise advanced authority and prudence. (Davis et al, 1997) .The proponents discussed that high-level of authority and discretion is attained when the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) also assume the position of Chairman of the Board. Stewardship principle argues that the issue is whether or not the ownership structure assists and facilitates in the management achievement of high corporate and firm performance. When the CEO is also the chairman of the board, the organization will be facilitative of this objective letting them assume apparent, clear and objective role expectations and authorize and empower higher and greater management. Thus, stewardship theory is not centralized on self-motivation through own financial gain, but the assumption of two roles as the chairman, at the same time as the manager of the corporation will produce superior results and maximized returns to the shareholders than separation of the roles of the chair and CEO as exemplified by the agency theory. Duality of these roles is considered a functional from in stewardship perspective. According to Fama (1980), being an effective steward of their firm, CEOs and managers are also effectively managing their own assets and careers. Stewardship, however, has its own set of limitations and gaps. Since it is trust-based relationships, it assumes underlying informal agreements and not most of the time, the functional logic or prà ©cised obligations (Mejia et al., 2001). Some authors ( Habbershon, 2006; Miller and Miller, 2005) argue that altruism mainly a compliment of stewardship might be influential in establishing an enormous network for the firm in its early stages, as employing a wide network of trustees or of relatives in cases of a family corporation (less concerned on their specifications) minimizing agency costs compared to a non-family member (Mejia et al., 2001).However, in the long run as the firm becomes more established, the need for well adept and professional managers arise to cope up with the competition thereby expect an increase in the agency costs. In essence, the organizations over all environment systems influence the inclination of managers. In an organization which houses the philosophy for self-actualization and involve employee-owners association, managers are inclined towards the stewardship perspective. Furthermore, collectivist behavior and non-power distance cultures encourages stewardship principles (Davis, Schoorman and Donaldson, 1997). Agency Theory vs. Stewardship Theory Agency theory concentrates primarily on the association between the principal and the agents in corporations, having a formal and contractual nature of relationship however with the presumed goal indifference and incongruence of interest (Sharma, 1997). Meanwhile, Stewardship theory is involved mainly in analyzing the importance of the co-existence of trust-based relationships along with agency relations in firms (Corbetta and Salvato, 2004). The stewardship approach, which encompasses commitment and trust to shared goals and desires exhibited by the principal and the manager alike, aligns the interest of the two parties (Albanese, Dacin and Harris, 1997). In 1997 Davis, Shoorman and Donaldson provided two key points that differentiated the Agency and Stewardship theories. These are the motivation and power comparison. In an agency type, the manager is motivated by personal interests and extrinsic rewards. In the stewardship, the manager is motivated by the human need for intellectual growth, achievement, and self-actualization, and by intrinsic rewards. In an agency theory, the power is institutionally directed while in the stewardship, it is based on personal ability and power to run the particular organization. Davis, et al (1997) argue that the two theories are not mutually exclusive but create a link between agency and stewardship relationships. Clearly, the stewardship theory provided a room for the failures and gaps in the agency theory. A manager of a firm may choose what type of inclination he is up to particularly in decision making as long as these three assumptions are supplemented. First the decision must be mutually agreed upon by both the principal and the agent. Secondly, it will always depend on the situation, and third objective is the expectations of the parties involved. Basing on the result of their study of 22 matrices on the possibilities of the actuations of the principal and agent, the agent can either opt to perform in an agency or in a steward fashion, and so can the principal. There can be four possibilities of outcome in the governance using the link between agency and stewardship and depending on the choice of the concerned parties. Two of which are a concrete exa mple of the agency theory where both have selected to uplift their self-interests and a true stewardship principle which maximize organizational performance. Other two possibilities of outcome which will result in one party taking advantage over the other and one recourse to injustice will result to low performance on the other party. When the principal acts as the steward and the manager acts as an agent, and on the other hand when the principal becomes opportunistic and the manager acts as a steward, which could pave the way for the frustration and declined feelings of self-worth to the aggravated party. The study on the relationship of these theories is very broad, thereby some wouldnt agree to the findings of Davis. According to Albanese, Dacin, and Harris (1997) there is a distinction between agency theory and the agency problem of divided self interest. They discussed that stewardship simply refined and advanced agency theory, it does not present an alternative. Eisenhardts (1 989) review shows that agency theory was continually developed and is studied thoroughly with the incongruent self-interests of the principal-agent as the fundamental supposition. Summary The agency model and stewardship model of the firm provide two different angles for understanding the governance of a firm, its decision making, its internal relationships, and its external relationships. This review advocates that the principal or manager acting as a steward, and employing people with similar expectations, is more in line with the traits needed for an organization to succeed like proper motivation, personal and company growth and self-actualization, thus increasing the potential for maximizing the performance of the firm. Moreover, the advantage of the stewardship model over that of the agency is that it presents managers an organized different array of motivations which could potentially include the interests of all relevant firm movers (Preston 1998).

Geopolitics and International Affairs

Geopolitics and International Affairs Geopolitics and International Affairs â€Å"What are the key factors in contemporary redistributions of Geopolitical Power?† The Encyclopaedia Britannica describes Geopolitics as â€Å"analysis of the geographic influences on power relationships in international relations† (2010); therefore Geopolitical Power is the power certain nations have over other nations, based upon Geographic influences and advantages. Across the world the geographies of power shift from nation to nation over time (such as the shift in power from Britain to the USA after WWII) and the hegemonic structure has a huge effect on world dynamics such economy, politics, society and culture. The nation with the most power tends to have the greatest influence over these and other factors. Currently, and in recent years there has been a notable rise in power from nations in the geographic east (most notably China) simultaneous to the apparent decline in power by the worlds current top geopolitical power (the USA). This is raising serious questions as to the future of the current hegemonic structure. There are a number of key factors which are driving this shift in power and here I aim to address and analyse these so that I may answer the question â€Å"What are the key factors in contemporary redistributions of Geopolitical Power?† The USA is currently the worlds dominant geopolitical power and has been since World War II. According to Fareed Zakaria (2008) â€Å"the United States [unrivalled economic status] has lasted more than 120 years† and that â€Å"The US economy has been the worlds largest since the middle of the 1880s†. As of 2008, The CIA World Fact book ranks the USA as having the highest GDP/PPP of any individual nation (The EU is ranked higher than the USA but is technically a united group of countries) which stands at $14,440,000,000,000; around double that of the next country on the list, China (CIA, 2008). In 2004 James F. Hoge, author of ‘A Global Power Shift in the Making (2004) explained that â€Å"Chinas economy is growing at more than nine percent annually† and that â€Å"Chinas economy is expected to be double the size of Germanys by 2010 and to overtake Japans, currently the worlds second largest, by 2020†. To put Chinas rapid growth into perspective in 2 010, its GDP has already overtaken that of Germanys, with economic spectators forecasting Chinas economy to outstrip Japans this year- 10 years prior to Hoges 2004 prediction. However, the economy of a nation may be an important indicator of world power, but is by no means the sole factor in determining hegemonic status; the USA is still dominant for other reasons. Military strength is- and always has been- one of the key ways of determining the power of a nation. The ‘Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) cited the USA as having a military expenditure in 2008 which amounted to $607,263,000,000, accounting for 41.5% of the worlds total military spending (SIPRI, 2009). Military strength provides a nation with the means of physically exercising its geopolitical power over other nations, and the USA currently dominates land, sea and air with its military presence. China may be a growing militant power and have a larger army in terms of personnel, however its military expenditure is a fraction of the USAs; and one must also take into account the sheer size of the population in China which explains the high numbers of active servicemen in the country. Both countries currently have a nuclear capability, which during the Cold War was â€Å"widely seen as a necessary qualification for a seat at the top table†. This is no longer the case and now the possession or development of nuclear weapons is deemed unacceptable behaviour (Hurrell, 2006). This is an example of how the factors of determining Geopolitical power change over time. The demographics of a nation are also of vital importance to its development and changes in population structure can have dramatic effects within both developing and developed nations. As of the 13th Jan 2010, the population of the USA is around 308,478,201, (United States official population clock, 2010) whilst the population of China is around 1,335,035,010 (Chinese official population clock, 2010) over 1 billion more than the USA. This is a vital factor in explaining why China has been experiencing such rapid growth in the past decade. Firstly, a large population means more people spending money, which raises the countrys GDP- China is currently the worlds second largest consumer behind the USA (Zakaria, 2008 [2]). In the current economic climate with recession still looming over many nations, it is important for the general population to keep spending in order to stimulate the economy; in China, this is no issue due to the huge numbers of people. This is why China, and Asia in general, has not been so greatly affected by the ‘global recession as the USA and Europe. A population of this size also provides China with a huge number of people of working age to power the worlds largest manufacturing industry, as well as other important areas of industry from banking (to lead China through this economic shift) to farming (to feed the vast numbers of people living in the country). China is so competitive on the international scene due to its vast labour force. However, it is the structure of a population which is really vital in determining the future power of a nation. An ageing population can put a strain on the relatively smaller working age population due to the cost of providing health care, pensions, housing, etc. A youthful population puts strain on education and health services, food supplies; and can result in too a lack of jobs in the future. Both have their issues, but both also have benefits. Japan for example has the worlds largest ageing population with 12.1% aged 65 and over in 2000, with a predicted rise to 26.2% by 2020 (Anderson, Hussey. 2000). Japan is now experiencing deep demographic issues with the working age population being too small to support the large elderly population, and the birth rate continually falling; having implications to the development of the country which has experienced declining power over the past 2 decades. There is a well known phrase that ‘children are the future and this wisdom is heeded particularly well in the USA. Whilst China may have a huge workforce, they are relatively uneducated. The USA prides itself upon the fact that its education system is so highly regarded, having a high output of skilled workers graduating from its prestigious universities every year. According to Zakaria (2008 [2]) â€Å"America trains more high-quality 4 year engineering graduates per capita than any other country† with â€Å"Eight of the top 10 universities in the worldin the United States†. This is why when visiting many US (and European) higher education facilities it is easy to notice the high proportion of Asian (particularly Chinese) students, as these institutions offer a far higher standard of education than would be available in Asia. These Asian students typically stay in America after they have completed their education due to more job prospects with a better rate of pa y than available back home, so are a vital resource to the country. Americas acquisition and prolonged control of power can largely be thanked to the younger generations who have been educated by US education facilities and gone on to create a huge pool of skilled and talented workers. These workers drive the economic industries of the US, whilst their high expenditure on commodities and consumer goods helps fuel growth of its GDP. Many people believe that China is the sole competitor to the USA for hegemonic status, believing that eventually China will overtake America as the sole dominant world power in terms of economy, military, culture, etc. However, others such as Fareed Zakaria (2008 [2]) believe that â€Å"the rise of rest† is far more likely; meaning that power will become dispersed amongst a number of powerful nations under America so that global decisions will no longer be made from one side of the globe. The countries believed to be the main competitors to this state of uni-multipolarity are those referred to as BRIC countries: Brazil, Russia, India and China. Uni-multipolarity will be the resulting situation whereby the US is still the superpower, but with these BRIC countries having much more participation in world affairs than they have done in the current uni-polar (US dominant) geopolitical structure. This shift in power may come as a shock to America and there is likely to be resistance of some sort from the west, although it is very unlikely that the US will lose its dominance so it should look to facilitate the transition of geopolitical power to make this inevitability happen as smoothly as possible. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, GF; Hussey, P (2000) Population aging: a comparison among industrialized countries. Health Affairs. [Online] Vol 19. No. 3. Sections 191 203. Available from: http://healthaff.highwire.org/cgi/reprint/19/3/191.pdf (Last accessed 13th Jan 2010) CIA (2010). The World Fact Book: Country Comparison GDP. Available from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html?countryName=United%20StatescountryCode=usregionCode=narank=2#us (Last accessed 11th Jan 2010) CPIRC (2010). Chinese official population clock. http://www.cpirc.org.cn/index.asp (Last accessed 13th Jan 2010) Encyclopaedia Britannica Online (2010). Geopolitics [Online] Available from: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/229932/geopolitics (Last accessed 11th Jan 2010) Hoge, J (2004). A Global Power Shift in the Making. Foreign Affairs. [Online] Vol. 83, No. 4. Pg 2-7. Available from: http://asr2.myweb.uga.edu/Fall%202004/Readings/Global%20power%20shift%20in%20the%20making.pdf (Last accessed 13th Jan 2010) Hurrell, A (2006). Hegemony, Liberalism and Global Order: What space for would-be great powers? International Affairs. [Online] Vol 82, No. 1. Pg 1-19. Available from: http://www.giga-hamburg.de/dl/download.php?d=/english/content/rpn/pdf/international_affairs_2006.pdf (Last accessed 13th Jan 2010) SIPRI (2009).The SIPRI Military Expenditure Database: USA. Available from: http://milexdata.sipri.org/result.php4 (Last accessed 11th Jan 2010) U.S Census Bureau (2010). United States official population clock. http://www.census.gov/population/www/popclockus.html (Last accessed 13th Jan 2010) Zakaria, F (2008). The Future of American Power: How America can survive the rise of the rest. Foreign Affairs. Available from: http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/63394/fareed-zakaria/the-future-of-american-power (Last accessed 11th Jan 2010) Zakaria, F (2008) [2]. The Post American World. [Online] Available from: http://www.cnl.com/documents/Post-American%20World.pdf (last accessed 13th Jan 2010)

The Issues of Neglected Children Essay -- Child Abuse Neglect Childhoo

The Issues of Neglected Children â€Å" â€Å"Child†: means a boy or a girl apparently or effectively aged less than eighteen years† (Van Stolk 146). â€Å"Rich kids, middle-class kids, poor kids - all deal with risk and neglect on a scale unimagined in previous generations† (Hewitt 11). There are problems of poverty, absentee parents, divorce, violence and drugs, plus much more that is simply out of hand. Deprivation and rejection dominate the lives of many children, among both poor and middle-class. We cannot ensure the safety of children on the streets or in our homes. On the educational front the news is even more disturbing, since underachievement and failure are now very popular. Something else that contributes to child neglect is a fast rate of family breakdown. This is an effect of divorce and rapid increase in single parent pregnancies. Couples marrying today face an even higher chance of divorcing at some point during their lives together. â€Å"A family’s deterioration can come about in ways other than separation† (Wilson 50). Staying together, in certain conditions and situations may increase further economical or psychological problems that may affect the child. Social attitudes today are scarcely more tolerant. â€Å"With the ratio of one divorce in four marriages moving towards one in three, we have been forced to look beyond those unexamined assumptions to asses realistically the changing role and changing needs of the family in Canadian society† ( Canadian Council 28). For women, and their children, divorce can often put severe economic hardships on them. Another part of family breakdown can occur when the absence of a male presence or male support to single mother families. â€Å"In the years following divorce living standards for ex-wives drop by an average of 30 percent while those for men rise an 8 percent† (Hewitt 41). Although babies from teenage girls have declined, the unmarried single parent teenagers who have children has risen rapidly. â€Å"There are now close to half a million live births to unwed teenagers every year† (Hewitt 41). The children in our society are defined by their dependent status. â€Å"From birth, to early adulthood, children must look to others to provide the adequate and dependable economic support required to meet their needs† (Canadian Council 21). Even in early childhood, they cannot support themselves and even if th... ...ore worth doing than easing the pain and improving the life chances of vulnerable, blameless children† (Hewitt 283). We need to invest in our children to save ourselves from further disaster. An additional distinctive character, is if we revise our civil policies so that children may prosper, it will greatly improve the economic status of women. â€Å"Enhancing and enforcing child support awards eases the lives of the children of divorce but also bolsters the standard living of ex-wives; mandating parental leave improves life circumstances of infants but also protects the earning power of women and reduces wage gap..† (Hewitt 282). â€Å"If we fail to look after our children they will drag this nation down† (Hewitt 10). Bibliography: 1. Canadian Council on Children and Youth. Admittance restricted: The child as citizen in Canada. Ottawa, Ont. , c1978. 2. Hewitt, Sylvia Ann. When the bough breaks: the cost of neglecting our children. New York, New York. 1987. 3. Van Stolk, Mary. The battered child in Canada. Rev. ed.Toronto, McClelland and Stewart, c1978. 4. Wilson, Jeffrey. Up against it : Children and the law in Canada. Toronto, Anasi. c1980.

C. Vann Woodwards The Strange Career Of Jim Crow Essay examples -- Ci

C. Vann Woodward's The Strange Career Of Jim Crow C. Vann Woodward illuminates one of the â€Å"ugliest† aspects of American societal history in his book The Strange Career of Jim Crow. His book is an overview of the development of the Jim Crow system, a set of racist laws put in place around the turn of the nineteenth century. Interestingly his book tracks the evolution of racism throughout American history. He not only shows where and when racism is developing but the different ways that the racism manifested itself in the North and South. C. Vann Woodward published the first edition of his book in 1955, while the racial atmosphere was in a tumultuous state. Black Americans at the time were still suffering from the effects of the Supreme Court Decision Plessy vs. Ferguson from 1896, the â€Å"separate but equal† distinction of the law. His book is published in the heat of these debates and racial struggle, posing the question how complete his book could be. He then republishes the book three more times, his second revised edition was published in 1966, his third in 1974, and the last in 2001. The book is based on lectures which he delivered at the University of Virginia in 1954. With every revision, he includes more evidence for arguments and responds to literary criticism. With the Civil Rights Movement raging around him, Woodward sought to explain the way the environment had come to be the way it was. In 1955 the Montgomery bus boycott was occurring as Woodward’s book was being published. With his first edition of the book, some of the most notable events of the civil rights movement had not yet occurred, Rosa Parks had not refused to give up her seat on the bus, the desegregation of schools was just beginning, and Martin ... ...at they could and they dealt with what they couldn't. The most interesting thing that Woodward does in his book is that he keeps perspective and he makes sure that he includes as much up to date information as possible. He is careful to keep his own personal opinions in perspective and bases most of the book on research. C. Vann Woodward himself comes from a background where he has dealt with much of what he writes about and he does not let his prior experiences interfere with his work. While he responds to the criticisms of his work he does not attack people he addresses the ideas. He uses many reliable sources from historical documents to his contemporaries. He gives both sides to every argument and point that he makes and he is very thorough. While he does not keep his opinions completely out of the book he includes his opposition and their opinions as well.

Hartshorne and Nishida Re-envisioning the Absolute :: Philosophy Philosophical Papers

Hartshorne and Nishida Re-envisioning the Absolute ABSTRACT: This paper is a comparative study of Hartshorne's neoclassical reconsideration of the notion of the Absolute based on his Whiteheadian vision of the divine relativity, and Nishida's attempt at redefining the same notion against the background of what he calls the philosophy of "place" (Jpn., basho) of absolute Nothingness or Buddhist Emptiness. By reconsidering the notion of the Absolute, Hartshorne has come up with the standpoint of "Surrelativism," and Nishida's attempt has resulted in the standpoint of "absolute dialectic as guided by the principle of the self-identity of absolute contradictions." What I intend to do in this paper is study comparatively Charles Hartshorne's neo-classical re-consideration of the notion of the Absolute based upon his Whiteheadian vision of the "divine relativity" and Nishida Kitaro's attempt at re-defining the same notion against the background of what he calls the philosophy of the "place" (Jpn., basho) of absolute Nothingness or Buddhist Emptiness. By reconsidering the notion of the Absolute Hartshorne has come up with the standpoint of "Surrelativism" in his Divine Relativity (1948). And Nishida's attempt at redefining the same notion has resulted in the standpoint of "absolute dialectic as guided by the principle of the self-identity of absolute contradictories" in his "The Logic of Place and the Religious Worldview" (written in 1945; published posthumously in 1946). Hartshorne belongs, as leader, to the second generation of Whiteheadian process-relational thought in North America. By contrast, Nishida is the founder of what is usually called the Kyoto School of philosophy in Japan; deeply inspired by Zen, Nishida vigorously engaged in a wholehearted, laborious encounter with the West philosophically throughout his career. But what I can commonly perceive in the two philosophers is a noticeable philosophical phenomenon: namely, the notion of the Absolute has undergone a profoundly significant process of self-transcendence/self-transformation in either of the two philosophical systems in such a way that one now begins to identify one's own position as "panentheism." Hartshorne and Nishida both negate and transcend the traditional notion of the Absolute as "transcendence"; in this sense, they both tend to be radically affirmative of the "immanence of the Absolute." And yet at this very juncture they both decidedly deny the linkage of their respective standpoints with that of Spinoza's "pantheism." Hence, panentheism. But how so? In what follows let me try to answer and elucidate this question as much as I can. For I perceive

How Technology Affects our Lives Essay

Technology is very much a part of modern life. Many people see technology as force that escaped from human control, others feel that technology has improved the quality of life. The issue of technology being a part of modern life is a controversial one. Some feel that the contribution of technology has made a positive impact in modern life that technology helps improve the quality of life. But still it’s in a big question. Technology’s role in our lives is astonishing. Its effect on the way we communicate has changed the English language forever. In â€Å"In the Beginning Was the Word† Christine Rosen tells how technology has a huge negative effect on our lives today. She also explains that because we are so attached to our electronic devices, we are creating more distractions for ourselves. In â€Å"Three Tweets for the Web† Tyler Cowen believes that internet soon will completely overcome books. He also says that technology is forcing us to multitask. Today for younger generation internet can provide faster and more accurate information on Google than going to a library and doing a research. Cowen begins his essay that printed word isn’t dead yet and that we won’t end up on internet. He says â€Å"For today’s younger people, Google is more likely to provide a formative cultural experience than The Catcher in the Rye or Catch-22 or even the Harry Potter novels. There is no question that books are becoming less central to our cultural life† (245). We want to get the information quickly, we don’t want to wait extra hours or even days for it. Rosen says â€Å"Today, of course, abridgment and abbreviation are the norm, and our impatience for information has trained even those of us who never cracked an issue of Reader’s Digest to prefer 60-second news cycles to 62 condensed pages per month† (204). We pay more attention to the information which we got from the internet, than we did anywhe re else. At the same time technology is making us multitask, multitasking is not an easy thing to do and it takes a lot of brain activity. Cowen writes â€Å"The mass migration of intellectual activity from print to the Web has brought one important development: We have begun paying more attention to information. Overall, that is a big plus for the new world order† (246). He also mentions â€Å"It is easy to dismiss this cornucopia as information overload. We have all seen people scrolling with one hand through a BlackBerry while pecking out instant messages (IMs) on a laptop with the other and eyeing a television (I  will not say â€Å"watching†). But even though it is easy to see signs of overload in our busy lives, the reality is that most of us carefully regulate this massive inflow of information to create something uniquely suited to our particular interests and needs – a rich and highly personalized blend of cultural gleanings† (246). Technology has even pushed authors to make the readings more consumer-friendly. Rosen explains that â€Å"The digital revolution has also transformed the experience of reading by making it more consumer-oriented. With the advent of electronic readers (and cellphones that can double as e-readers), the book is no longer merely a thing you purchase, but a service to which you subscribe. With the purchase of a traditional book, your consumer ends when you walk out of the bookstore. With a wirelessly connected Kindle or Iphone, or your Wi-Fi-enabled computer, you exist in a perpetual state of potential consumerism† (205). To sum everything up both, Christine Rosen and Tylen Cowen thinks that technology does have a huge impact to the language. It still has some good features, such as: it allows us to multitask faster and better, we can save time by just looking something up we need on Google, and for last if we still want to read a book, we can always just subscribe to a e-book provider, then you just download the e-book on your phone, tablet, or computer and here you go! So what all that means is that technology didn’t really killed printed word, even though we’re most likely to choose to read electronically, we still read.

Media influence on modern culture Essay

In the last 50 years or so technology had contributed to the exponential growth of the mass media where what started out with the telegraph was subsequently followed by the radio, the newspaper, magazines, television and the new arrival the Internet. The outcome of all these subsequent introductions had made society to be dependant on information and communication for all the major steps they are taking and areas such as work, health care, education, interpersonal relationships, leisure time such as entertainment, travelling etc., doing business, investing, and most of the things people are doing are based on facts, information and recommendations they get from the various mass media. This means that, although while working it is possible that people depend on what they learned and the subsequent experience they gained, when it comes to their daily lives they, for the most part, rely on the media to find out as to what is current in the news and other facts that might affect their lives, the society as a whole and if there are areas that they have to be aware of. Because of that it is possible to extrapolate that society had developed a trust towards the media over time to such an extent that it has become an authority in providing up to the minute news, entertainment, education, information etc. to the point where the influence of mass media on society and culture had become very significant. This study will try to highlight some of the influences affecting culture directly and which one of them have positive outcomes or otherwise. Historical Background Throughout the years people had their own ways of communicating amongst each other and when the mass populous of any given community is involved the crude form of communicating, exchanging information and knowledge had been evolving over the years. The very early form of communication involved one able individual who could have a special training and would be at the service of the king or the religious establishment that mostly used to be the ones who would have some important message that is beneficial to a large mass of people. Whether what is communicated is a message or news that the public will be interested in, using a single individual to address the public at a gathering was the most popular way to relay anything of interest to a gathered public that had been invited to attend such gatherings or it might take place where people gather to do other things such as trading. The most critical announcements of the olden days were news about faraway colonies, if there happened to be a sudden death among the public figures such as kings or queens or if there is an activity such as a war that requires the participation of some of the members of the populous. What replaced this old method of communication was putting the news in some kind of print format where instead of people converging at a given place to receive messages, news, instructions, etc. whatever was to be communicated started to go wherever the people are in a form the earliest news letters. When looking at what is taking place in modern days, the emergence of the modern mass media was the outcome of an advancement in technology where the convergence of various technologies such as print media, electronic media, advertising, public relation and currently the Internet formed what is today’s mass media. The current mass media has various outlets such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines and Internet that are easily accessible by the public and what is communicated through such mediums and how it is communicated had become very complicated. Since the cost of acquiring such mediums had become affordable by the masses, the cost of communication had also gone down making communicating among people or those who have particular messages to the mass easy and can be done at a desired frequency without worrying about a very high cost. When looking at culture it is possible to perceive it as values that follow certain pattern and could have certain goals, beliefs, behaviours coupled by knowledge and experience that a given group will concede to share among themselves. The same could apply to establishments that are out to accomplish certain tasks where they will have certain values or missions that make up their corporate culture and they will have to put to work these values and mission statements in order to meet the expectation of the public and community they are serving. That being as it is modern media has a considerable influence on such cultures to the point where it could dictate what the public as well as institutions should be doing to the point where the media might become authoritative and a force to reckon with. If that is not the case a certain member of society or an institution could get a bad coverage that would affect the image of those involved and since the media had attained an authoritative status it can influence the culture of people, communities, as well as establishments that are out to serve the public. If that public has bad opinion about them because of what the media reports or preaches they will find it difficult to carry out their duty. This demonstrates that there had been interdependence among media and culture that was outcome of the media dictating what the public and others that have various roles to play should do or adhere to. Since the number of media outlets had increased the outcome had been the sources where people are getting their information had also increased. This by itself had forced individuals to identify with some of the information and messages they get from the various media outlets and that had result in influencing how they do things and their overall culture. Media Influence on Culture McQuail (2000) uses the gratification model why the public or a given audience would want to consume what the media avails through a given medium. Society as a whole, groups or individuals want to reinforce their basic behaviour and to accomplish that they start out by identifying themselves with roles or role players, the kind of value they hold or communicate and sometimes their gender and ethnicity might also be taken into consideration. Another reason why whatever the media comes up with is consumed by members of society is there is always a need to interact with other people through what the media avails, whatever medium is used such as television, newspapers, magazines, movies, Internet etc. It is also possible members of a given society as a group or individually would need some kind a security source that will enable them to enhance their knowledge about the world they are living in or they might need information to carry on with their lives or with whatever they are doing. When that is the case there is no better source to resort to other than the media and its various mediums or outlets that include books. It is also possible from a very early age people had been reliant on some form of entertainment so that they can use it to pass time, as an escape or they might need emotional release such as excitement, suspense, laughter etc. Based on such findings it is not difficult to surmise that the influence of the media on culture is at the very high level currently, because the earlier days did not have to deal with such barge of media broadcasting using various mediums on a daily basis. Because of the high level of exposure people are getting to modern media they cannot avoid their culture being heavily influenced by what they consume from the media. This will make it possible to say that the way people behave in modern times is the reflection of the kind of influence they receive from the modern mass media. The modern media deals with daily politics, current affairs, it is the major source of entertainment and the like where people that interact with a certain medium would also pass what they encountered to others that could result in shaping how such individuals interacting with each other would behave. Use of Entertainment to Influence Cultural Practices Entertainment had been one of the effective vehicles the media uses to influence culture. All entertainment programs aired on television, the music played at the home, workplace, in vehicles and at entertainment venues, all the stories written on newspapers, magazines, even books will affect the participating public’s culture to the point where it is possible people could learn new and better things that will force them to drift away from the older values their culture holds that will result in people adopting new behaviour. What had been taking place was that the media had managed to bring together what is taking place around the world on one platform so that people can compare various cultures, outlooks, and way of doing things and adapt to the ones they find to be palatable to their taste and understanding. This is accomplished on the part of the media by employing surveillance on what various groups of people are doing and exposing these activities to others using various mediums to an extent that some groups could be encouraged to showcase their culture to others who could eventually adopt them if they attain a liking for them. How Media Educates People to Handle Their Daily Activities The media could also educate people how to do certain things by showing them how to handle it better or conduct certain activities where it is possible to show people to conform to certain ways of doing things that could result in changing their way of life. This would enable people to adapt to what is taking place in the grater world in stead of being confined in their own culture only that will result in people adopting new cultures because of their being exposed to the modern media. New ideas will not only be limited to those who will only have a firsthand encounter to various happenings, as these people will pass what they saw or learned to others. Such transferring and communicating of information had been made faster because of the coming into the picture of the Internet, mobile telephones, TV that can be accessed from anywhere as long as there is Internet connection, radio that could be broadcast globally and magazines that could find their way into the global marketplace. Conflict Resolution Among the various advantages media avails to communities one of them is conflict resolution. Most world communities are afflicted by various kinds of conflicts that could be the outcome of competition or rivalry among various groups. Such conflicts will result at times in mass killing or unjust practises taking place that would affect innocent civilians. In a situation like this, the media can play an intermediary role by exposing bad practices and by coming up with just solutions where it could possible to implement the introductions to solve conflicts. The media is in a position to use effectively various mediums such as films or stories written on newspapers, magazines, news broadcast etc. to serve a given purpose in curbing violence and bring back normalcy to besieged communities. The media had also been actively influencing the political sphere and can put pressure on various governments, especially in democratic countries such as the US and the UK as to how to implement certain policies they come up with. Whenever there is an election the media also plays a crucial role by allowing the candidates and electorate to interact with each other through interviews, debates or question and answer secessions where the audience participates live. This kind of an exposure is capable of affecting the culture a certain group is practising, including the stand of political parties and their leaders. Furthermore, occasions such as debates, question and answer periods or broadcasting speeches made by prominent individuals for mass consumption will all result in nurturing the thinking, the outlook and the culture of the participating public that will lead in enabling the participants to take certain actions that are mutually beneficial The media also had been playing a crucial role in improving people’s lives, by advocating that the public as a whole has to be responsible about what would happen to the environment. The media had also been intervening in drug abuse, certain immoral behaviours, violence and the like that would result in brining down the occurrences of such incidents and eventually people could make the positive outlooks communicated part of their culture and could refrain from violence or would avoid abusing drugs that will result in enhancing a given community’s long held culture. In all this, there are three highlighted stages through which the interaction and media consumption can take place. The first is direct consumption where the individual will directly be involved in using the medium used such as TV, reading newspapers or surfing the Internet where there is no interference or destruction from any other source. The second type of media consumption is when there is another tool or anything of such nature interfering with the direct consumption of what a given medium communicates such as talking on the phone while watching TV or cleaning utensils while watching TV etc. The third consumption method is when the individual is not directly using the medium because some of the things the individual is doing are interfering directly where the individual cannot pay attention to the point there will not be any new information learned to affect the individual’s culture or behaviour. When looking at various findings there had not been certain indications as to whether the media is beneficial or otherwise in spite of the numerous debates that had been staged to arrive at the reality and there is no certain indication that the escalated media consumption has affected the long standing cultures of communities positively or negatively. However, when looking at some of the mediums that have become largely available for use by the public such as the telephone, Internet, computers, television, radio etc. it possible to say they have positively enriched people’s lives, hence their culture, although there are negative impacts too. In modern days people have a much better means of communication that were not available a few decades ago enabling them to communicate with family members, friends, employers and co-workers in such a way that it had become possible to do so without incurring a high cost. When looking at what is taking place in modern media such as 24-hour access to television and radio broadcasting and programming, or participating in a given medium through talk-shows that are open to the public, or simply writing an article and having it published on newspapers, magazines, newsletters or on the Internet had become much easier and could result in many people communicating their ideas where they can interact on blogs and chat rooms in real time. All new ideas and suggestions communicated using such channels had become useful as they will end up influencing existing cultures. The outcome of such interaction had been seen as a major contribution to modern culture where various programmes such as news, documentaries, interviews, advertisements etc. will all contribute to the modern culture because they can reach a big number of people. They could serve as a catalyst that will create a streamlined outlook that will result in making the world culture more-and-more similar. Peculiar cultures such as circumcising young girls that takes place in cultures such as Kenya could be put in check because people will know it is harmful, as well as affects the normal life of the girls as they grow up. Furthermore, access to a vast amount of media such as TV or affordable Internet access has enabled people to improve their vocabularies and thinking pattern because their chance of being exposed to experts, role models, politicians and the like has become much higher. Accordingly, such exposures will enable them improve their perception as well as their linguistic ability, which is more so to younger students. Interpersonal relationship had also got a boost because individuals could learn more positive manners from the media that improves their behaviours and would enhance the socialising capability of individuals enabling them to meet more people, whose interaction will always enhance one’s culture. Consuming what modern media avails also encourages individuals to be socially responsible, because there are factors such as opinion polls that will shape how people think or see things and the outcome will be they can take better control of their daily life and if they happen to be in a position of authority they will always pay attention to how the media is portraying them. In spite of the benefits the media brings to the fore there are certain areas that have negative impact on society such as violence that could originate from media outlets that are not regulated. The side effect of such exposure could be it will raise the level of violence in a given society since most people, especially younger ones are always prone to imitate those who they consider to be role models. Another area that has a negative impact is the escalated immorality level in modern society that is the outcome of interacting with modern media. It is so because of the assumption that as long as certain acts originate from socially accepted sources such as the media, the fact that a certain act is immoral could be side-stepped. This could lead to certain diseases such as aids and other sexually transmittable diseases, early teen pregnancy and unprotected sex to go unchecked because if the media portrays such incidents as not grave problems there are many that will be victimised (Shaw and McCombs, 1972). The media is also constantly exposing people to fancy outlooks or lifestyles and this will affect the culture of communities because their members could disregard their cultural values and could end up chasing what the media is exposing them to. Modern media had increased the rate of criminal activities in many societies, because most media outlets portray numerous criminal activities as good, acceptable and normal leading some to succumb to committing crimes. There are scenes in the media that show abusing drug as a good act or at least as not a dangerous engagement or using dangerous weapons could be portrayed as a normal thing to do leading the youth of certain communities to be caught imitating these acts. The media also ends up portraying certain races or ethnic groups better than others resulting in discriminatory behaviours. Criticisms to Correct Wrong Outlooks Sources such as Ganutlett (1998) had refused the upheld belief concerning modern media being the source of violence. He had stated that the first task to accomplish is to focus on the so called social violence and examine the causes based on the identity of those who commit such violence, their background, character etc. before blaming all incidents on media. On the other hand, when looking what effects theory has to say it promulgates that commercials, advertising, as well voter campaign and the like influence behaviour and culture. Some examples to cite are trials of celebrities and prominent individuals that had attracted mass attention and had ended up shaping opinions and to an extent behaviours, but it is not possible to say that will always be the case. What the critics of media effects theory had been advocating was that when examining most incidents labelled as copycat murders, suicides or violent acts the contributing factors had been upbringing harbouring that it must have been abnormal for the most part. More than media environments that were violent, emotionally not fulfilling and a prolonged exposure for a prolonged period to aggressive environments are more contributing factors than watching movies, commercials, listening to certain music etc. It is also important to look at mental instability, as it had been a major cause for most violent crimes. This means that findings indicate that any kind of violence or any act deemed immoral such as abnormal sexual interactions are not at all considered as influencing factors, because most people who grew up bombarded with such acts have finished to be normal members of society, although there are few that had been victimised. According to sources such as Baker (2001), the major source of violence is background and upbringing instead of watching movies on various mediums that depict violence or other indecent acts. According to him daily news consumed by many people could also be full of violence, but that does not instigate many people go out and copycat the acts and if that happens the main reason would be the social background of those who commit such acts instead of what they consume from various media outlets. Freedman (2007) was among researchers who had shown evidence by showing what took place in the US and similar countries where crime had increased sharply between 1965-1980 blamed on the violence originating from various media. The same violence act precipitated at around 1992 although the usual media outlets that were releasing violent material were doing it at a much higher level showing that societal violence is not a direct outcome of consuming violent or immoral material availed by various media outlets forcing critics to look elsewhere for the cause. In stead, there are other areas where the media has a major influence on how people behave, act or perceive certain things. One such area is agenda-setting that is the outcome of how news is gathered and dispensed ((Shaw and McCombs, 1972). Good examples cited are the four major news agencies such AP, UPI, Reuters and Agence-France that are responsible at least for around 90% of news consumed through various media outlets. The material such agencies come up with had impeccable reliability over the years to the point where they had gained some public respect and authority. However, critics eye this interaction as a close collaboration of the news agencies and existing establishments, where in tandem they are out to manipulate society, culture, behaviour and thinking so that existing status quo will continue to reign. This means that media could be instrumental rather than being true agents of propaganda. Such a stance will always make them finish as supporters of those who have economic power who in fact are spending money on the media agencies in a form of advertising, airtime etc. so that they will go out and influence the culture on their behalf, altering their habit of doing things such as spending, buying, voting, leisure activities etc. which are part of the components that make up modern cultures. Whatever the cause and drive behind the measure the media takes, at the end of the day the media would end up influencing culture reforming it to serve a certain purpose the media wants that will reflect the desire of those who are responsible for oiling the machine of media such as politicians, big business, government and interest groups showing that there is interrelation in what is taking place and certainly media is impacting culture on a daily basis. There are sources that emphasised how media had become instrument of control. New media such as the Internet is facilitating more than ever such social control because, currently the number of the participants had exploded by the emergence of such new media tools such as blogs that are having impact on culture as society members are not consumers only anymore and they have become participants and have become responsible in affecting their own culture. That does not, however, means they take the place of the mainstream media that always had influential power as witnessed from what took place in geographical locations such as Asia where a rapid social change had taken place that had been attributed to be the effect of media on culture. This shows that wherever the modern media penetrates it will affect the culture of backward communities for the better creating a more or less global village and such outcome had been noted when television had been introduced in Bhutan where the culture had undergone a rapid Westernisation. It does not mean everyone sees such changes positively as Schiller (1976) had called such impact cultural imperialism, where those who have economic and political power could end up imposing their will and culture on weaker societies by manipulating the media effectively. In a situation like this it is possible to see media as a means of social control, in spite of the fact such imposition will also be accompanied with higher standard of living, urbanisation, literacy etc. requiring more fortified exposure to mass media so that what is gained will not be reversed. Because of that if there is going to be some gain attained, there has to be some degree of adaptation to make and that might end up altering a given culture. Whether the introduced change is good or bad it is up to the onlookers to judge, but the reality is willingly or otherwise, modern media could affect culture to the point where those affected could lose control their indigenous culture. However, what puts the fear to rest is governmental intervention at every level is available in any community where there is censorship to weed out offensive material, where there could be licensing laws in place that will take measures for failing to comply with the agreed upon rules showing that all objectionable material could be kept out of the reach of people. However, with the advent of mediums such as the Internet that might not be totally possible, but the responsibility could shift to the participants where they can congregate and critically assess what they are encountering on the new medium that are accessible through an Internet connection, where discussing the merits and demerits of what are made available will be possible. This means that the consuming public had been the sole decision maker when it comes to what to consume or what not to consume on the Internet to such an extent reason, logic and good judgement had become the regulators instead of governmental decrees, although still governmental decrees also dictate what cannot be made available on the Internet and at the end of the day it is what the public and others are doing that will end up influencing behaviour, thinking and culture. It is no longer media alone, for the most part, that would impact culture as it used to be because the media would have to share the prevalent platform with the participants who are gaining more control. In spite of the independence individuals attained to act on their own, when looking at the public sphere, media could still have a stronghold where it can form public opinion which could also be applicable in the public’s consumer behaviour scene where those who claim to be connoisseur could influence how the public reacts to what is directed at it in a form of goods and services. However, when it comes to politics findings indicate that even if there are those who say media simply fixes or confirms what people held as their strong conviction, the reality could be a large number of people could lack political experience and correct perception making them heavily reliant on the trusted and autocratic media and in the long term it will dictate their behaviours, thinking and culture. Yet, there are sources such as Thompson, (1995) who claim one-way communication, which had been the media approach and mainstay does not work effectively when compared to where there is interaction through telephone and currently blogs, chat rooms etc. where live interaction could be involved, including posting photos and videos or using web-cam to directly access someone important such as a politician privately. When examining the effect the media has in a free enterprise society, items such as news, commentaries, documentaries and similar informative programmes could be dealing most of the time with controversial and real world problems and subjects. Whereas, the rest of media is mainly entertainment or it is advancing the cause of sponsors without whom the private broadcasting companies would not exist. Therefore, the second genre of what media represents is the advancing of the interest of the various enterprises that have products or services to the viewing public and their main concern is selling what they are bringing into the marketplace. With the same token, they would want to influence the public to use their products, because most products require getting used to in order to pay money for them. Looking at the prevalence of telephone service in an advanced community is a good example, because starting from the homes, workplaces, public meeting places, various shops, malls and streets all can be fitted with some kind of telephone service that include cars. Amongst all these possibilities there are mobile phone manufacturers that should convince the public to use cell phones in addition to whatever they are using demonstrating that they might not need anything else since the device can go with them everywhere. In order to change people’s view who used to using the traditional telephone system the makers of such phones and service providers have to spend a lot of money on media ads to educate the public whose outlook, habit, usage and culture will be affected both by the ads, as well as the new products showing that whatever way it is looked at and whatever source or interest group uses the mass media to serve it certain purpose, people’s outlook, thinking and culture should go some kind a transformation ascertaining to a good extent mass media, whoever employs it, in the long run it will affect culture. REFERENCE Barker, M. â€Å"the Newson Report: a Case Study in Common Sense III : Effects in the Media /Violence Debate, (second edition), ed. Martin Baker and Julian Petley (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 27-46. David Gauntlett (1998). â€Å"Ten things wrong with the ‘effects model’†. Approaches to Audiences – A Reader. Available online: http://www. theory. org. uk/effects. htm. Accessed July 23, 2010 Freedman, Jonathan. ‘No Real Evidence for TV Violence Causing Real Violence’ First Amendment Centre, 2007, online, Available: http://www. firstamendmentcenter. org/commentary. aspx? id=18490 Accessed July 23, 2010 McCombs, M & Shaw, D. L. (1972), ‘The Agenda-setting Function of the Mass Media’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 73, pp176–187 Mcquail, Denis (2000) McQuails’s Mass Communication Theory (fourth edition), Sage, London, pp. 16-34. Schiller, Herbert I. (1976). Communication and cultural domination. International Arts and Sciences Press, 901 North Broadway, White Plains, New York 10603. pp. 9–10 Thompson, J. (1995), The Media and Modernity